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Women-rule would be more peaceful?女性领导世界更和平吗?

已有 329 次阅读2017-11-12 05:44 |个人分类:政治 法律


It is not the gender but the quality of brain  

Aeon - Ideas can change the world

    A blog about the new, the odd, and the wonderful by Josie Glausiusz, who has written about every topic known to science, from physics to furry animals, for magazines that include Nature, National Geographic, Discover,and Wired. She is the co-author of Buzz: The Intimate Bond Between Humans and Insects..
     Aeon is a registered charity committed to the spread of knowledge and a cosmopolitan worldview. Our mission is to create a sanctuary online for serious thinking.

Josie Glausiusz is a journalist who writes about science and the environment for magazines including NatureNational GeographicHakai magazine and the Israeli newspaper Haaretz. She is the author of Buzz: The Intimate Bond Between Humans and Insects (2004), and lives in Israel.

Would the world be more peaceful if there were more women ... - Aeon


https://aeon.co/ideas/would-the-world-be-more-peaceful-if-there-were-more-women-leaders

During the opening months of the First World War, in the midst of the incendiary jingoism roiling Britain, the poet Dorothea Hollins of the Women’s Labour League proposed that an unarmed, 1,000-strong ‘Women’s Peace Expeditionary Force’ cross Europe ‘in the teeth of the guns’ and interpose itself between the warring armies in the trenches. Hollins’s grand scheme did not materialise, but neither did it emerge in a vacuum; it was nurtured by a century of activism largely grounded in maternal love. Or, as her fellow peace activist Helena Swanwick wrote: the shared fear that in war ‘women die, and see their babies die, but theirs is no glory; nothing but horror and shame unspeakable’.

Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in Germany in 1986. <em>Photo by Rex Features</em>
Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in Germany in 1986. Photo by Rex Features

Swanwick helped to found the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, an organisation dedicated to eliminating the causes of war. She hoped for ‘a world in the far-off future that will not contain one soldier’. Many activists believed that if women had political power, they would not pursue war. But how true is this? Do incidences of violent conflict alter when women become leaders, or when their share of parliamentary representation rises? In what sense do women mother wars?

If you ask this question out loud, not a minute will pass before someone says ‘Margaret Thatcher’, the British prime minister who waged a hugely popular war in the Falklands that led to her landslide 1983 election victory. Thatcher is hardly the only woman leader celebrated for her warmongering. Think of Boudicca, the woad-daubed Queen of the Iceni people of eastern England, who led a popular uprising against the Roman invaders; or Lakshmi Bai, Queen of Jhansi and a leader of the 1857-58 Indian Mutiny against the British; or even Emmeline Pankhurst, who led British suffragettes on a militant campaign of hunger strikes, arson and window-smashing, then, in 1914, became a vociferous supporter of Britain’s entry into the Great War.

But these examples are anecdotal because, throughout history, women leaders have been extremely rare. Between 1950 and 2004, according to data compiled by Katherine W Phillips, professor of leadership and ethics at Columbia Business School, just 48 national leaders across 188 countries – fewer than 4 per cent of all leaders – have been female. They included 18 presidents and 30 prime ministers. Two countries, Ecuador and Madagascar, had a woman leader, each of whom served for a mere two days before being replaced by a man.

Given the tiny sample size, does it even make sense to ask if, given power, women are more or less likely than men to wage wars? The medical anthropologist Catherine Panter-Brick, who directs the conflict, resilience and health programme at the MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies at Yale University, thinks not. ‘It stereotypes gender, and assumes leadership is uncomplicated,’ she told me. Perhaps she had thinkers such as Stephen Pinker in her sights. In The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011), his study of violence throughout history, Pinker wrote: ‘women have been, and will be, the pacifying force’. That assumption is not always grounded in reality, says Mary Caprioli, a professor of political science at the University of Minnesota Duluth. Along with Mark A Boyer at the University of Connecticut, she counted 10 military crises in the 20th century involving four female leaders (seven of which were handled by Golda Meir, Israel’s prime minister from 1969 to 1974). To assess the behaviour of women leaders during crises, they say, one needs a large sample – ‘which history cannot provide’.

Oeindrila Dube, a professor of global conflict studies at the University of Chicago, and S P Harish at New York University – have studied four centuries of European kings and queens. In their as-yet-unpublished working paper, they examined the reigns of 193 monarchs in 18 European polities, or political entities, between the years 1480 to 1913. Although just 18 per cent of the monarchs were queens – making their analysis less statistically reliable – they found that polities ruled by queens were 27 per cent more likely than kings to participate in inter-state conflicts. Unmarried queens were more likely to engage in wars in which their state was attacked, perhaps because they were perceived as weak.

The fear of appearing weak affects modern women leaders too, according to Caprioli, perhaps causing them to over-compensate on issues of security and defence. She notes that women who emulate men, such as Thatcher, Meir and India’s prime minister Indira Gandhi (1980-84) – who claimed to be a ‘biform human being’, neither man nor woman – are more likely to succeed as political leaders. They must also contend with negative stereotypes from male opponents: for example, Yahya Khan, former president of Pakistan (1969-71), said that he would have responded less violently toward Indira Gandhi during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War if India had had a male leader. ‘If that woman [Gandhi] thinks she can cow me down, I refuse to take it,’ he said.

Dube and Harish found that women were more likely to aggress if they were sharing power with a spouse, as in the case of Isabella I and Ferdinand V, who co-ruled the Kingdoms of León and Castile between 1474 and 1504. A notable exception is Catherine the Great, who became Empress of Russia in 1762 following the assassination of her husband Peter III, and whose military campaigns extended the borders of Russia by 520,000 square km, incorporating Crimea and much of Poland.

For women to lead, they must often begin with political involvement – running for state or national parliaments, leading campaigns, organising women to run for office. In 2017, the worldwide average of women in parliament is only 23.3 per cent – a 6.5 per cent gain over the past decade. That gain is significant: Caprioli’s data shows that, as the number of women in parliament increases by 5 per cent, a state is five times less likely to use violence when confronted with an international crisis (perhaps because women are more likely to use a ‘collective or consensual approach’ to conflict resolution).

States are also more likely to achieve lasting peace post-conflict when women are invited to the negotiating table. Although the number of women included in peace talks is minuscule (a United Nations study found that just 2.4 per cent of mediators and 9 per cent of negotiators are women, and just 4 per cent of the signatories of 31 peace processes), the inclusion of women can make a profound difference. Peace is more likely to endure: an analysis by the US non-profit Inclusive Security of 182 signed peace agreements between 1989 and 2011 found that an agreement is 35 per cent more likely to last at least 15 years if women are included as negotiators, mediators and signatories.

Women succeed as mediators and negotiators because of qualities traditionally perceived as feminine and maternal. In Northern Ireland, Somalia and South Africa, female participants in peace processes earned a reputation for fostering dialogue and engaging all sides. They are also often seen as honest brokers, more trustworthy and less threatening, because they act outside formal power structures. Yet despite the perception of softness and malleability, their actions are often quite the opposite. In 2003, the Liberian peace activist Leymah Gbowee led a coalition of thousands of Muslim and Christian women in picketing, praying and fasting that helped to end the country’s brutal 14-year civil war. Dubbed ‘a warrior for peace’, Gbowee shared the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize.

Terms such as warrior, weapons and revolution are often used for groups that agitate for peace, among whom women continue to be ‘disproportionately highly represented’, according to the UN. In Israel, Women Wage Peace organises protests to pressure the government to work towards a viable peace agreement. In Argentina, the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo ‘revolutionised’ motherhood by protesting the disappearance of their children during Argentina’s ‘dirty war’ from 1977 to 1983, transforming maternity from a passive role to one of public strength.

The ‘weaponising’ of traditional notions of femininity was also a strong component of the decade-long women’s peace camp at Greenham Common in the UK. Beginning in 1981 as a protest against the arrival of 96 Tomahawk cruise missiles at the US air base in Berkshire, the women surrounded and cut the fences of the air base, clambered over the barrier dressed as teddy bears, and pinned babies’ clothes, bottles, teething rings, diapers and family photos to the wires. Their battle was no less militant than Thatcher’s war in the Falklands, yet she dismissed the women as an ‘eccentricity’.

It seems that, no matter whether women are fighting for peace or for war, they must also battle against the assumption that they themselves are passive, weak or peculiar. History shows us that that isn’t true, and that, in the case of Isabella I and Ferdinand V, they could be relentlessly cruel: not only did the royal couple lead the Spanish conquest of the Islamic Kingdom of Granada in 1492, expelling both Jews and Muslims, they tortured those who remained and converted them to Christianity – in some cases burning them to death.

Nor are they always as peaceable as their personal history suggests: Aung San Suu Kyi, the de facto leader of Myanmar and a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 ‘for her non-violent struggle for democracy and human rights’, has been widely condemned for failing to denounce the country’s military for its campaign of ethnic cleansing against the persecuted Rohingya people, a Muslim minority in Myanmar’s northern Rakhine state. According to Human Rights Watch, since 25 August 2017, more than 400,000 Rohingya Muslims have fled across the border to Bangladesh to escape the army’s barrage of arson, atrocities and rape.

As Caprioli notes: ‘Women leaders can indeed be forceful when confronted with violent, aggressive and dangerous international situations.’ But they can also be aggressive in the cause of peace. It is, indeed, a stereotype to dismiss women as inherently peaceable. As Swanwick wrote in The Future of the Women’s Movement (1913): ‘I wish to disclaim altogether the kind of assumption … in feminist talk of the present day.’ That is, ‘the assumption that men have been the barbarians who loved physical force, and that women alone were civilised and civilising. There are no signs of this in literature or history.’

女性领导人越多 世界就更和平吗?

http://www.sohu.com/a/202329755_611438

1986年,英国前首相撒切尔夫人访问德国。

本文转载自界面文化(ID:BooksAndFun)

平心而论,主张“女人天生追求和平”其实也是一种刻板印象。

一战开始后不久,英国国内弥漫着一股野心勃勃的沙文主义气息,在这种情况下,妇女劳工联盟(Women's Labour League)成员、诗人桃乐茜·霍林斯(Dorothea Hollins)提议成立一支为数一千人、不配备武器的“女子和平远征队”(Women's Peace Expeditionary Force)前往欧洲战场,“直面炮口”宣示反战态度,设法阻止各国军队交火。

该计划虽然流产,但它并非一时兴起之举,其背后乃是一部出于母性之爱的百年抗争史。换言之,如其同志海伦娜·史温薇(Helena Swanwick)所言:她们担心轻启战端将会“令无数女人与小孩丧命",“但他们的牺牲却换不来一点荣誉,惟有无尽的恐惧与无法言说的羞耻。”

斯温薇推动成立了“妇女国际和平与自由联盟”(Women's International League for Peace and Freedom),该组织致力于消除各类可能引发战争的因素。她期盼“将来的世界里没有一个士兵”。她的许多同志也深信,要是女人有了政治权力,她们断然不会去打仗。但这个说法有多可靠?如果女人成为领导人,或是拥有了更多议会席位,就能够改变发生暴力冲突的几率吗?女人去打仗的理由可能是什么?

假如读者大声问出以上问题,不到一分钟就会有人向你递上“玛格丽特·撒切尔”的名字——这位英国女首相发动了著名的英阿马岛之战,此举帮助她赢得了1983年大选。以好战闻名的女领导人远不止撒切尔夫人一人,以下略举几例:带领不列颠诸部落抵抗罗马帝国的爱西尼人女王布狄卡(Boudicca);1857-1858年印度反英大起义中的詹西女王拉克希米·芭依(Lakshmi Bai);领导了英国妇女参政权运动、以绝食、纵火乃至砸碎窗户来进行斗争的埃米琳·潘克赫斯特(Emmeline Pankhust)也可以算在里面,1914年她还曾对英国参加一战表示大力支持。

然而这些例子都只能算是个案,因为历史上的女领导人数量实在太少了。据哥伦比亚大学商学院领导学与伦理学教授凯瑟琳·菲利普斯(Katherine W.Phillips)统计,以1950-2004年为限,188个国家里只出过48名女领导人,包含18名总统以及30名总理,仅占领导人总数的不足4%。在厄瓜多尔和马达加斯加这两个国家,女领导人更是只在任了两天就被男性取代了。

既然样本量如此之小,那么追问女领导人上台后是否比男领导人更好战还有多大意义?医学人类学家凯瑟琳·潘特-布里克(Catherine Panter-Brick)是耶鲁大学麦克米兰国际与区域研究中心“冲突、恢复力与健康”项目主管,她对此不以为然,她说“这也是一种性别刻板印象,做领导是一件相当复杂的事情。”在此,她想要批评的学者似乎是史蒂芬·平克(Stephen Pinker)。

在《人性中的美丽天使》(The Better Angels of Our Nature)一书中,平克写道:“女人曾经是,并将继续是一股维系和平的力量。”明尼苏达大学德卢斯分校政治科学教授玛丽·卡普里沃里(Mary Caprioli)指出,这个假设并不总能得到事实支持。

她与康涅狄格大学的马克·博伊尔(Mark A.Boyer)研究了20世纪里发生的10次军事危机,发现其中4次都与女性领导人有关,1969-1974年间任以色列总理的梅厄夫人(Golda Meir)更是其中7次危机的始作俑者。两名学者表示,若要对女领导人在危机中的行为模式开展精确研究,首先需要一个特别大的样本——“而这是历史上根本没有的”。

《人性中的美丽天使》

芝加哥大学“全球冲突研究”教授艾德里拉·杜比(Oeindrila Dube)与纽约州立大学教授哈瑞什(S.P.Harish)的研究横跨4个世纪,考察了其间的欧洲男女君主。

在尚未发表的论文中,他们以18个欧洲国家(或政治实体)的193名君主为研究对象,时间跨度为1480到1913年。在这些君主当中,女性只占18%——这也使得论文的分析在统计上显得不太可靠——研究表明,女性统治的国家发生国内冲突的几率比男性统治时高27%。未婚的女性君主在其政权面临威胁时更倾向于选择开战,这可能是由于女君主在他人看来显得弱势的缘故。

卡普里沃里指出,这种不甘示弱的心态对现代女性领导人也有影响,而这可能会令她们在安全以及防务问题上作出过度反应。她认为那些“女汉子”式的领导人,如撒切尔夫人、梅厄夫人以及1980-1984年在任的印度总理英迪拉·甘地(Indira Gandhi)——她们戏称自己“有两种形态”,既非男人也非女人——在仕途上会更加畅顺。

不过,即便强势如她们,也难免会遇到一些男性政敌的刻板印象:例如1969-1971年在任的前巴基斯坦总统叶海亚·汗(Yahya Khan)就声称,假如1971年印巴战争时印度的最高领导是个男人,他对英迪拉·甘地的态度将不会那么粗暴,他说“如果那个女人自认可以吓倒我的话,我绝不买帐。”

杜比和哈里什还发现,假如女人与其伴侣共同掌权的话,她们会变得更具进攻性,1474-1504年间与其夫斐迪南二世一同治理莱昂与卡斯蒂利亚诸王国的伊莎贝拉一世就是一例。

一个引人注目的例外是叶卡捷琳娜大帝(Catherine the Great,港澳台译为凯瑟琳大帝),她在1762年暗杀丈夫彼得三世后登上帝位,其军事行动使俄国领土扩大了52万平方公里,克里米亚与波兰之大部皆被并入俄国版图。

叶卡捷琳娜大帝

女人要想做国家领导人的话,一般要从普通的政治参与开始——如竞选国家公职或议会席位、带头打选战、组织妇女参选等等。2017年,全世界范围内的女议员比例仍只有23.3%——较上个十年增长了6.5%。

这一成果意义重大:卡普里沃里的数据表明,女议员数量每多5%,一个国家在面临国际危机时动武的几率就会少5倍(可能是因为女人更倾向于诉诸多边机制和谈判来解决冲突)。

如果有女人参与到谈判中来,国家之间在冲突后维持和平状态的时间便会增加。尽管参与和平谈判的女人数量很少(联合国的一项研究发现,只有2.4%的调停者以及9%的谈判者是女人;在31项和平进程中,由女性担当签字人的只有4%),但只要有女人参与进来,情况就会发生巨大的变化。

和平状态将会因此而更加持久:美国非盈利组织“包容性安全”(Inclusive Security)的一项研究考察了1989到2011年间的182项和平条约,结果表明:如果有女人以谈判者、调停者或是签字人身份参与谈判的话,相关条约维持15年乃至更久的几率会增加35%左右。

女人之所以擅长调停与谈判,正是因为她们身上那些从传统上看来“阴柔”(feminine)和“母性”(maternal)的特质。在北爱尔兰、索马里和南非,女性多有参与和平进程,一时传为佳话,人们认为女人更善于促成对话,且能照顾到各方诉求。她们是真诚的调解者,更加可信且更少威胁,这是因为女人通常在正式的权力结构之外活动。

不过,在这种“柔软”和“温顺”的印象之外,女人在实际行动上并非总是如此。2003年,利比里亚的和平主义者莱伊曼·古博韦(Leymah Gbowee)联合千百万穆斯林和基督徒女性,透过劝阻、祈祷以及绝食等手段,呼吁结束该国为期14年之久的残酷内战。时人赞其为“和平勇士”,古博韦2011年获得诺贝尔和平奖。

"勇士"、"武器"与"革命"这类提法一般是用来形容为和平而战的组织的,根据联合国的说法,这当中女人的比例依然“高得出奇”。以色列的“妇女促进和平”组织(Women Wage Peace)频频发起抗议,要求政府达成一个可靠的和平协议。

在阿根廷,“五月广场母亲”(Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo)完全“革新了”母性一词的含义,1977-1983年间阿根廷军政府发起的“肮脏战争”(dirty war)使许多母亲失去了自己的孩子,她们对此提出了强烈抗议,使母性从一个相对消极的角色变得具有了公共力量。

阿根廷“五月广场母亲”

令传统女性概念“武装化”的做法,在为期十余年的“格林汉康芒妇女和平营”(Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp,所谓“和平营”是指某些反战团体会在军事基地外面修建永久性的居住设施,以便进行长期的抗议活动——译者注)运动中也扮演着关键的角色。

该运动始于1981年,主要目的是抵制伯克郡的美国空军基地追加部署96枚战斧巡航导弹的决定,女人们把基地围得水泄不通,切断了基地围栏,有人穿成泰迪熊的样子坐在围栏上,还有人把各种婴儿用品和全家福照片挂在上面。她们的“战斗”激烈程度并不逊于撒切尔夫人攻打马岛,后者借此战之机,驳斥了女人容易“偏心”(eccentricity)的旧看法。

看起来,无论女人要和平还是要战争,她们都不得不同时与那些认定女人为“被动”、“弱小”或“古怪”的偏见作斗争。历史表明这种看法是不正确的,读者回忆一下前文提到的伊莎贝拉一世与斐迪南二世共治的例子,即可知道女人也能变得残酷无情:这对夫妻不仅发起了西班牙1492年征服伊斯兰王国格拉纳达(Granada)的战争,驱逐了那里的犹太人和穆斯林,还对这些人当中被迫留下来的那一部分实施虐待,试图强迫他们改信基督教——有时甚至会动用火刑。

从女人的个人史来看,她们也并不总是爱好和平的:昂山素季是缅甸目前事实上的最高领袖,曾因“以非暴力手段争取民主与人权”而获得1991年诺贝尔和平奖,但她最近却遭到各方批评,西方舆论指责她没能阻止缅甸军队针对罗兴亚人的“种族清洗”举措。来自人权观察(Human Rights Watch)的报告显示,自2017年8月25日至今,约有40万罗兴亚人穿越边境逃往孟加拉国,以避开军队的纵火、暴行与性侵。

正如卡普里沃里所言:“女性领导人在面对充斥着暴力、敌意与危险的国际局势时,同样能做到强硬以对。”但她们也能够积极地促进和平进程。平心而论,主张“女人天生追求和平”其实也是一种刻板印象。斯温薇1913年即在《女性运动的未来》(The Future of the Women's Movement)中写道:“在当前有关女性主义者的争论中……我希望能完全否定这类假设。”这也就是说,“视男性为热衷于暴力的野蛮人,主张惟有女人才有教养且致力于追求文明的看法,同样是靠不住的。在书本和历史里找不到一丁点儿这样的迹象。”

更多女性领导人,世界会变得更和平?

澎湃新闻 2017-11-12 17:06:00
本文原载《万古》(Aeon)电子杂志,作者为专栏作家,现居以色列。庄沐杨编译。
http://wemedia.ifeng.com/36778299/wemedia.shtml

面对暴力、挑衅和国际政治危机时,女性领导人事实上是相当有魄力的。但她们也有可能为了和平而变得极富野心。实际上,认为女性天生就是温和的是一种成见。认定男性必然是野蛮好斗的,而女性则是被教养驯化的、有教养的,这不管是在文学作品中,还是在人类历史上,都找不到根据。

在第一次世界大战的最初几个月,好战的沙文主义情绪在英国国内发酵,这时,来自妇女劳工联盟(Women’s Labour League)的诗人多萝西·霍林斯(Dorothea Hollins)提议说组建一支非武装的“妇女和平远征军”,穿越欧洲的枪林弹雨,到战壕里去调停交战双方。霍林斯的宏伟计划并未实现,但也没有就此凭空消失。这个想法,在一个“激进主义”的世纪里得到了发展,这种激进主义大体可以认为是扎根于母性关怀的;又或者,是扎根于——她的同伴、和平运动人士海伦娜·斯旺尼克(Helena Swanwick)所说的战争带来的恐惧:“女人死去、或看着她们的孩子死去,而毫无光荣可言,只有难以言喻的惨状与耻辱。”

1915年,世界妇女和平与自由联盟创始人Chrystal Macmillan(右)与同伴们在挪威奥斯陆。

斯旺尼克参与创办了世界妇女和平与自由联盟(Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom),该组织致力于消灭任何可能引发战争的因素。她所希望的是,“未来的世界将不再有哪怕一个士兵”。许多激进主义者相信,一旦女性掌权,她们将不会再挑起战争。但这个说法到底有多可靠?当女性成为领导人后,或者当她们的国会议员人数比例上升后,暴力冲突的概率就会随之变化吗?女性将如何干预战争呢?

要是你大声问出这个问题,不一会儿就会有人给出答案:玛格丽特·撒切尔。这位前英国首相发动了马岛战争,并借此在1983年的选举中取得压倒性的胜利。撒切尔并非唯一一个因好战而闻名的女性领导人。想想布迪卡(Boudicca)吧,这位东英格兰爱西尼人(the Iceni)的女王,带领军队对抗罗马人;还有印度的章西女王(Lakshmi Bai),1857至1858年间发动兵变抗击英国殖民者;甚至是艾米琳·潘克斯特(Emmeline Pankhurst),她带领英国妇女参政论者展开一系列激进运动,包括绝食抗议、纵火以及打砸商店橱窗等,且到了1914年,她成为英国参战的狂热支持者。

但这些例子都像是闲谈,因为纵观人类历史,女性领导人少得可怜。根据哥伦比亚商学院领导力与伦理学教授Katherine W Phillips的统计数据,从1950年到2004年间,在188个国家里只有48个国家有过女性领导人,总数占这段时间各国领导人人数的不到百分之四。其中有18个国家元首与30个首相/总理。厄瓜多尔和马达加斯加虽有过女性领导人,但她们都只掌权区区两天时间就被男性取而代之了。

考虑到这小得微不足道的样本量,追问“倘若女性掌权,那较之于男性,战争发生的概率是会更高还是更低”这样的问题还说得通吗?医学人类学家Catherine Panter-Brick在耶鲁大学国际与地区研究中心(MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies)负责冲突、适应性与健康计划,针对上述提问,她给出的答案是否定的。她对我说:“这会造成对性别的刻板印象,还设想政治领导能力并不复杂。”她所针对的大概是斯蒂芬·平克(Stephen Pinker)这样的学者。平克在出版于2011年的The Better Angels of Our Nature一书中研究了历史上的暴力,他写道:“女性曾是,也将会是一种抚慰人心的力量。”明尼苏达大学德卢斯分校的政治学教授Mary Caprioli则表示,这类设想并非总是扎根于现实的。对此,康涅狄格大学的Mark A Boyer则列举了在20世纪由四位女性领导人所挑起的十场军事危机,其中有七次是由1969年到1974年间掌权的以色列总理梅厄夫人(Golda Meir)引发的。她们称,如果要评判女性领导人在军事危机中的行为,研究者需要更大的,而且是“历史所无法提供的”参考样本。

芝加哥大学教授Oeindrila Dube和纽约大学的学者S. P. Harish研究了欧洲历史上的国王和女王们,时间跨度长达四个世纪。在他们尚未出版的论文中,两位学者研究了1480年到1913年间18个欧洲国家或政权的193位最高统治者,并发现,女王们之下的国家或政权参与到战争中的概率,要比国王们治下的国家高出27%。未婚女王们更有可能遭遇战争,大概是因为她们和她们的国家被认为是脆弱的。

根据Caprioli的研究,对可能展现出脆弱一面的担忧也影响着现代的女性领导人,这或多或少导致她们过度关心安全与国防议题。她注意到,撒切尔、梅厄以及印度前总理英迪拉·甘地这样的女性领导人,她们模仿男性,被认为是既非男性亦非女性的“中性人”,身为政治领导人的她们也更容易获得成功。她们也必须对付来自男性政敌的刻板印象,例如巴基斯坦前总统叶海亚·汗就说过,1971年印巴战争时,他对英迪拉·甘地的回击本应该不那么激烈,如果印度当时的领导人是男性的话——“如果她(英迪拉·甘地)认为她能击倒我的话,我也拒绝接受这种说法。”

通过研究1474年至1504年间伊莎贝拉一世和费迪南德五世共同治下的卡斯蒂利亚与莱昂王国,Dube和Harish发现,女性一旦和配偶共同掌权,则将变得更富侵略性。值得注意的例外则是叶卡捷琳娜大帝,她在1762年暗杀了丈夫彼得三世,成为了俄国沙皇,她的军事行动扩大了沙俄的版图,包括克里米亚和波兰大部,为这个国家新增了52万平方公里的国土。

女性若想成为领导人,常常始于政治参与:地区或国家议会的竞选、领导政治运动、组织女性竞选公职。2017年,全世界女性参与到国会中的平均比例也就区区23.3%,在过去十年间增长了6.5%。这一增长意义重大:Caprioli的研究数据显示,女性在议会中占比每提高5%,则该地区或国家应对国际危机时采用武力的概率就会减少五倍(大概因为女性更倾向于使用“集体的或协商的方式”来解决争端)。

当女性被请到谈判桌前时,国与国之间也更容易在冲突之后达成长时间的和平。尽管女性参与到和平谈判的人数微乎其微(一项联合国的研究发现只有2.4%的调停人员和9%的谈判人员是女性,且只占31项和平谈判的4%),但女性的参与却能带来意义深远的改变。和平得以长时间持续下去——美国非营利组织Inclusive Security分析了1989至2011年间所签署的182项和平协议,发现当女性作为谈判者、调停人或签约人参与和平谈判的话,所达成的和平状态中,长达15年以上的概率要高35%。

女性作为调停人或谈判者得以成功的原因在于传统意义上所说的“阴柔”和“母性”特质。在北爱尔兰、索马里和南非,女性参与到和平运动之中,通过促进多方会谈而赢得了大量赞誉。她们也常被视作诚实的中介人,显得更加可靠又不那么有威胁,因为她们多在权力体制外游走与活动。但尽管女性呈现出温柔亲近的特质,但她们的行动却又与这些特质相反。2003年,利比里亚和平运动人士古博韦(Leymah Gbowee)领导一个穆斯林与基督徒女性的联合团体,通过示威、祷告和绝食等方式推动长达14年的血腥的内战走向终结。古博韦作为“和平斗士”荣获2011年诺贝尔和平奖。

像斗士、武器和革命这样的概念常被那些致力于和平运动的团体所用,而根据联合国的说法,在这之中女性依然是被“不成比例地高度地代表着”。在以色列,妇女促进和平运动(Women Wage Peace)组织了抗议活动,敦促政府达成可行的和平协议。在阿根廷,五月广场母亲(Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo)将母性“革命化”,她们抗议1977至1983年阿根廷“肮脏战争”期间自己孩子的失踪或死亡,也由此将母性从被动的角色转变为一种公共力量。

1982年12月12日,格林汉康芒妇女和平营的3万名成员牵手组成6英里人墙阻止美军在当地的基地部署导弹。

“武装”女性的阴柔这样的传统概念则是英国格林汉康芒(Greenham Common)妇女和平营长达十年来的主张。妇女和平营始于1981年,在当时,为抗议96枚“战斧”巡航导弹运抵伯克郡美国空军基地,女性们包围了基地,剪断围栏,穿着泰迪熊的衣服爬上栅栏,在铁丝网上钉满婴儿服装、瓶子、橡皮咬环、纸尿布和家庭合影。她们的行为的激进程度最多也就和撒切尔发动的马岛战争差不多,但她却称她们是“古怪的”并驱散这些人。

似乎不管女性是致力于和平还是战争,都必须还要和认为她们是被动的、软弱的且特殊的这样一种偏见对抗。历史告诉我们这种判断是错误的,并且从伊莎贝拉一世和费迪南德五世的例子来看,她们可能是残酷无情的——这对国王夫妇不仅带领西班牙在1492年征服了格拉纳达的伊斯兰王国,驱逐了犹太人和穆斯林,还折磨那些留下来的人们,并强迫他们改信基督教,甚至在有些情况下他们会将对方活活烧死。

女性也不一定就像她们各自过往的经历所示般追求和平。昂山素季,缅甸事实上的最高领导人,1991年凭借其“为了民主与人权的非暴力抵抗”而成为诺贝尔和平奖获得者。由于缅甸军方针对缅北若开邦的罗兴亚人的种族清洗,昂山素季招致各方谴责声讨。根据人权观察组织的说法,自2017年8月25日以来,已有超过40万罗兴亚人越过国界线逃到了孟加拉国。

一如Caprioli强调的:“面对暴力、挑衅和国际政治危机时,女性领导人事实上是相当有魄力的。”但她们也有可能为了和平而变得极富野心。实际上,认为女性天生就是温和的是一种成见。就像斯旺尼克在《女性运动的未来》(The Future of the Women’s Movement , 1913)所写的:“我拒绝所有针对今天女性主义者的不切实际的论断……即认定男性必然是野蛮好斗的,而女性则是被教养驯化的,是有教养的。不管是在文学作品中,还是在人类历史上,都找不到这种论断的根据。”

本文原载《万古》(Aeon)电子杂志,作者为专栏作家,现居以色列。庄沐杨编译。



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