食醋

半数实验动物致死量LD50为165克/50公斤

迄今为止，西方医学尚未研制出针对新冠病毒的有效疗法，是病毒自杀式突变，削弱了感染力。现代研究表明，人体免疫系统是通过免疫细胞释放次氯酸（HOCl）来杀死入侵病毒和病菌的。也就是说，自哺乳动物诞生以来，维持其生命正常运行，保证身体健康的关键 - 免疫功能，是通过制造免疫细胞分泌次氯酸发挥其功能的。中药调节阴阳平衡是增加免疫细胞。中医药用的醋能增加免疫细胞，能提高免疫力。

研究证明，醋通过破坏蛋白质结构来杀灭新冠病毒，由此，醋能杀灭共价键结构的各种病毒和病菌。研究证明，任何剂量醋都能增加小鼠血液免疫细胞计数，降低新冠的死亡，缓解主要并发症；调节生理指标恢复正常，治疗癌症，治愈糖尿病，增加血氧，改善睡眠和消化功能，治疗慢性肾病，降低高血压，抗炎，促进胰岛素分泌细胞，增加骨密度，等，对所有研究的疾病均有积极作用。

我的经验，食醋能消除牙结石，几天之内快速恢复萎缩的牙龈，巩固松动的牙齿。醋能治愈从食物入口到消化物残渣出口，由病毒或病菌导致的感染性疾病。尤其是，治疗非感染的神经性肠易激综合症，因为，醋能够综合调节人体的健康机能。

醋 发现 药理 研究进展

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegar

醋（源自古法语 vyn egre，意为“酸酒”）是一种有气味的水溶液，主要成分是稀释的乙酸和微量化合物，这些化合物可能包括调味剂或天然存在的有机化合物。醋通常含有 4% 至 18%（体积比）的乙酸。[1]

通常，乙酸是通过双重发酵产生的——首先利用酵母将单糖转化为乙醇，然后利用醋酸菌将乙醇转化为乙酸。[2] 根据原料的不同，醋的种类繁多。

如今，醋主要用于烹饪，作为一种风味浓郁的酸性烹饪原料、沙拉酱或腌制剂。各种类型的醋也被用作调味品或装饰，例如香醋和麦芽醋。

作为一种易于生产的弱酸，醋在工业和家庭生活中有着广泛的用途，包括用作家用清洁剂。[3]

词源

快速有氧发酵，不锈钢容器

“vinegar”（醋）一词源于中古英语，由古法语 (vyn egre；酸酒) 演变而来，而古法语又源于拉丁语：vīnum（酒）+ ācre（ācer 的中性，酸）。[3][4] 醋以前也被称为 eisel。

“acetic”（醋酸的）一词源于拉丁语 acētum（醋，更准确地说是 vinum acetum：“变酸的酒”）。[5]

历史

虽然制醋的历史可能与酿酒一样悠久，但最早有记载的制醋和用醋的证据来自公元前 3000 年左右的古巴比伦人。[6] 他们主要通过发酵水果、枣、无花果和啤酒来制醋，并将其用于烹饪和医药用途。之后，醋的用途传播到邻近地区，在埃及的瓮中也发现了醋的痕迹。

在东亚，中国人从周朝开始将醋的生产专业化。[7] 《周礼》一书提到，许多贵族或皇室家族都设有专门的“制醋师”。当时的制醋业主要集中在如今山西省太原市附近，至今这里仍然是著名的制醋产区。许多中国醋的种类及其在烹饪和药用方面的用途都被记录在农业手册《齐民要术》中。[7]

希腊人和罗马人经常使用葡萄酒酿造的醋。斯巴达人将醋作为传统血汤（melas zomos）的配料；醋除了为汤汁增添风味外，其酸性还能防止血液凝固（这也是现代世界各地血汤中仍然使用醋的原因）。罗马人科鲁梅拉在其著作《农事》（Res Rustica）中描述了几种醋的原料和制作工艺。[7]

中世纪晚期，欧洲的醋酿造业逐渐走向专业化，法国奥尔良市因其规范化的发酵和陈酿工艺而声名鹊起，这种工艺被称为奥尔良法。[6][7] 与此同时，麦芽醋也在英国开始发展，最初被称为阿莱加醋。[8] 意大利摩德纳公国也开始发展巴萨米克醋，但直到拿破仑战争时期，法国军队将其出口海外后，才使其广为人知。[9]

19世纪，醋的生产经历了许多剧烈的变化，例如快速的工业化和科学分析。1823年，卡尔·塞巴斯蒂安·舒岑巴赫在巴登王国发明了第一个大规模工业化醋生产工艺。[7] 该工艺被称为“填料发生器”，它将酒精循环流经山毛榉木屑，将发酵时间从几个月缩短到1-2周。这一过程也促进了以纯酒精为原料制成的醋——即蒸馏醋或白醋——的兴起。日本在德川幕府末期开始实现醋的工业化生产。当时，出身于传统清酒酿造世家的中野又左卫门发现，清酒酒糟可以用来制作米醋。这为当时日本寿司的蓬勃发展提供了充足的醋源。他创立的公司，即现在的美滋（Mizkan），总部位于名古屋附近的半田市，是世界上最大的醋生产商。[7]

与此同时，人们逐渐认识到醋的发酵是一个自然的生物过程。路易·巴斯德做出了决定性的发现：一种特殊的细菌，后来被称为醋酸菌，是醋发酵的驱动力。[10]

20世纪，醋的生产再次迎来革命性的变革，液态发酵法的发明将生产时间缩短至1-2天。[11] 这使得廉价醋得以在全球范围内大规模生产。

化学

乙醇 (CH3CH2OH) 和氧气 (O2) 转化为乙酸 (CH3COOH) 的反应如下：[12]

CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O

多酚

醋中含有多种黄酮类化合物、酚酸和醛类化合物[13]，其

醋，例如橙皮或各种浓缩果汁。[14][15]

生产

主条目：醋酸 § 生产

商业醋的生产分为快速发酵和慢速发酵两种。传统醋通常采用慢速发酵法，发酵过程持续数月至一年。较长的发酵时间有利于积累由醋酸菌及其纤维素生物膜组成的无毒粘液，即醋母。

快速发酵法是在通入空气进行充氧并促进快速发酵之前，将上述醋母作为细菌培养物添加到原料液体中。[16] 在快速生产过程中，醋可在 1-3 天内生产完成。

种类
醋的原料多种多样——可以使用不同的水果、谷物、酒精饮料和其他可发酵材料。[3]

水果醋

葡萄干醋

水果醋由果酒制成，通常不添加任何额外的调味剂。常见的果醋口味包括苹果、黑加仑、覆盆子、榅桲和番茄。通常，最终产品会保留水果本身的风味。大多数果醋产自欧洲，那里存在着对高价果醋的需求，这些果醋完全由特定水果制成（而非添加水果或果味的非水果醋）。[17] 亚洲也生产多种果醋。柿子醋（韩国称作“甘涩草”）在韩国很常见。红枣醋（中国称作“枣醋”或“红枣醋”）和枸杞醋则产于中国。

韩国产柿子醋

苹果醋由苹果酒或苹果汁制成，呈棕金色。有时，苹果醋未经过滤和巴氏杀菌，保留了醋母，直接出售。饮用时，可以用果汁或水稀释，也可以加糖（通常是蜂蜜）。

商业化猕猴桃种植的副产品是大量的废弃物，包括畸形果或其他不合格的果实（可能占总产量的30%）和猕猴桃果渣。果渣的用途之一是生产猕猴桃醋，新西兰至少从20世纪90年代初就开始商业化生产猕猴桃醋，中国则于2008年开始生产。[18][19]

葡萄干醋是中东菜肴中常用的醋。它呈浑浊的中褐色，味道清淡。椰枣醋是中东的传统产品，在阿拉伯东部地区也很常见。[20][21]

棕榈

菲律宾椰子醋

椰子醋由发酵的椰子汁或椰子水制成，广泛用于东南亚菜肴（尤其是在菲律宾，被称为“sukang tuba”），以及印度和斯里兰卡的一些菜肴，特别是果阿菜肴。它是一种浑浊的白色液体，味道特别酸爽，略带酵母味。[22]

在菲律宾，其他类型的醋也是用棕榈汁制成的。与椰子醋一样，它们都是棕榈酒（tubâ）生产的副产品。其中产量最大的两种是尼帕棕榈醋（sukang nipa 或 sukang sasa）和卡翁棕榈醋（sukang kaong 或 sukang irok）。它们与椰子醋和甘蔗醋一起，是菲律宾四种主要的传统醋，也是菲律宾菜肴的重要组成部分。[23]尼帕棕榈醋由尼帕棕榈叶柄的汁液制成，带有柑橘风味，并散发出独特的麝香味。[24][22] 卡翁棕榈醋由卡翁棕榈花茎的汁液制成，比其他菲律宾醋更甜，常用于沙拉酱。[23] 布里棕榈汁液也用于制作醋，但不如椰子醋、尼帕醋和卡翁醋普遍。[25] 卡翁棕榈醋在印度尼西亚和马来西亚也有生产，但由于棕榈酒产业在这些穆斯林占多数的国家并不普及，因此不如菲律宾普遍。[26][27]

巴萨米克醋

主要文章：传统巴萨米克醋和巴萨米克醋

巴萨米克醋是一种芳香的陈年醋，产于意大利的摩德纳和雷焦艾米利亚省。正宗的传统巴萨米克醋，由特雷比亚诺（Trebbiano）白葡萄的浓缩汁液（或称葡萄醪）制成。它呈深棕色，口感浓郁、香甜且层次丰富，其中品质最佳的巴萨米克醋会在橡木、桑木、栗木、樱桃木、杜松木和白蜡木等不同材质的木桶中依次陈酿。最初，这种昂贵的产品仅供意大利上层阶级享用。传统巴萨米克醋会标注“tradizionale”或“DOC”，以表明其受保护的原产地名称，并陈酿12至25年。一种价格更低廉的非DOC商业产品，被称为“摩德纳巴萨米克醋”（aceto balsamico di Modena）[28]，在20世纪后期开始在世界各地广为人知。这种醋通常是用浓缩葡萄汁与浓醋混合制成，然后用焦糖和糖进行着色和轻微调味。

巴萨米克葡萄藤

香醋由葡萄制品制成。它不含香脂，但传统上会在制作过程中用香脂陈酿。其较高的酸度被其他成分的甜味所掩盖，使其口感柔和。就营养成分而言，香醋含有葡萄糖（约占总成分的17%），使其热量比普通蒸馏醋或葡萄酒醋高出约五倍。[29]

甘蔗醋

甘蔗醋由甘蔗汁制成，是菲律宾的传统醋品，尤其在北部的伊罗戈斯地区（当地称之为伊罗戈醋或巴斯醋）最为流行。其颜色从深黄色到金棕色不等，口感柔和，在某些方面与米醋相似，但味道更“清新”。由于不含残糖，其甜度与其他醋并无二致。在菲律宾，它通常被称为“sukang maasim”（他加禄语，意为“酸醋”）。

伊罗戈斯地区的甘蔗醋有两种不同的制作方法。一种方法是将甘蔗汁直接放入大罐中，细菌会直接作用于糖分使其变酸。另一种方法是通过发酵，制成一种名为“basi”的传统葡萄酒。低品质的basi会进行醋酸发酵，将酒精转化为醋酸。受污染的basi也会变成醋。

其他国家，如法国和美国，也生产甘蔗醋。[30] 近年来，一种白色的甘蔗醋在巴西非常流行，它是当地最便宜的醋。现在，为了降低成本，人们通常会将其他类型的醋（例如葡萄酒醋、米醋和苹果醋）与甘蔗醋混合出售。[来源请求]

在印度北部部分地区，人们用甘蔗汁酿造甘蔗酒（Sugarcane sirka）。夏季，人们将甘蔗汁倒入装有铁钉的陶罐中。野生酵母的作用使其发酵。甘蔗汁最终转化为呈黑色的醋（由氧化亚铁和醋酸盐制成）。这种醋常用于腌制泡菜和咖喱调味。

谷物
麦芽醋，也称为“麦芽醋”[31]，是用大麦发芽制成的，发芽过程中谷物中的淀粉会转化为麦芽糖。然后用麦芽糖酿造麦芽酒，使其转化为醋，最后进行陈酿。[31] 麦芽醋通常呈浅棕色。麦芽醋（与盐一起）是炸鱼薯条的传统调味料，在英国和加拿大，它也是炸薯条的常用调味料。一些炸鱼薯条店会用非酿造的调味品代替麦芽醋。盐和醋是薯片常见的传统调味料；[32][33][34] 在某些品种中，为了避免产品在生产过程中受潮，醋会被转化为醋酸钠或二醋酸钠。[35]

中国黑醋

中国黑醋是一种用大米、小麦、小米、高粱或它们的混合物制成的陈年产品。它呈墨黑色，味道浓郁，带有麦芽香。由于配方不固定，一些中国黑醋可能会添加糖、香料或焦糖色素。最受欢迎的品种是镇江醋，产自中国东部江苏省镇江市。[36] 山西老醋是另一种受欢迎的中国醋，它完全由高粱和其他谷物制成。如今，在山西省，一些传统的醋作坊仍然生产酸度较高、至少陈酿五年的手工醋。根据最新的国家标准，只有在太原和晋中部分县市生产，且至少陈酿三年的醋才被认为是正宗的山西熟醋。日本生产一种用大米制成的颜色较浅的黑醋，称为黑醋（kurozu）。

米醋在东亚和东南亚的烹饪中最为流行。它有白米醋（浅黄色）、红米醋和黑米醋三种。日本人喜欢用颜色较浅的米醋来制作寿司饭和沙拉酱。传统的红米醋是用红曲米染色的。黑米醋（用黑糯米制成）在中国最为流行，在其他东亚国家也广泛使用。白米醋酸度较低，味道比较平淡，不够复杂。有些米醋会添加甜味剂或其他香料调味。

烈酒

雪利醋

“烈酒醋”一词有时专指浓度较高的醋（醋酸含量为 5% 至 24%[37]），这种醋由甘蔗或化学合成的醋酸制成。[38] 要被称为“烈酒醋”，产品必须源自农业，并且必须经过“双重发酵”。第一次发酵是将糖转化为酒精，第二次发酵是将酒精转化为醋酸。在英国，用合成醋酸制成的产品不能被称为“醋”，英国允许使用的术语是“非酿造醋”。

ent”。

雪利醋与赫雷斯雪利酒的生产密切相关。它呈深红褐色，完全由葡萄酒的醋酸发酵制成。雪利醋浓郁，香气馥郁，带有淡淡的木香，是制作油醋汁和为各种食物调味的理想选择。[39] 葡萄酒醋由红葡萄酒或白葡萄酒制成，是南欧、中欧、塞浦路斯和以色列最常用的醋。与葡萄酒一样，葡萄酒醋的品质也参差不齐。优质的葡萄酒醋会在木桶中陈酿长达两年，展现出复杂而醇厚的风味。葡萄酒醋的酸度通常低于白醋或苹果醋。更昂贵的葡萄酒醋则由特定品种的葡萄酒制成，例如香槟、雪利或灰皮诺。

在美国使用的“蒸馏醋”（在英国称为“烈酒醋”，在加拿大称为“白醋”[40]）一词其实并不准确，因为它并非通过蒸馏法生产。但它是通过蒸馏酒精发酵制成的。发酵液被稀释，制成浓度为 5% 至 8% 的无色醋酸水溶液，pH 值约为 2.6。这种醋有多种名称，例如蒸馏酒、“初榨”醋[41]或白醋，用于烹饪、烘焙、肉类保鲜和腌制，以及医药、实验室和清洁用途。[38] 在某些地区，由于成本低廉，最常用的原料是大麦麦芽[42]，而在美国则使用玉米。有时它也从石油中提取。[43] 蒸馏醋主要用于烹饪，但在英国，它被用作棕色或浅色麦芽醋的替代品。白蒸馏醋也可用于清洁，有些类型专门用于此用途。

烹饪用途

醋常用于食品制备[3]，特别是用作腌制液、油醋汁和其他沙拉酱。它是一种重要的配料。醋常用于各种酱料中，例如辣椒酱、芥末酱、番茄酱和蛋黄酱。酸辣酱中也偶尔会加入醋。醋通常单独作为调味品使用，或与其他调味品混合使用。腌料中也经常含有醋。汤类中有时也会加入醋，例如酸辣汤。就保质期而言，醋的酸性使其无需冷藏即可无限期保存；它本质上已经“变质”了。[44]

饮料

中国有一种用苹果醋制成的饮料

许多饮料都使用醋制成，例如古罗马的波斯卡酒（posca）。古希腊的蜂蜜醋（oxymel）由醋和蜂蜜制成，而波斯传统饮料塞坎贾宾（sekanjabin）与蜂蜜醋类似。其他一些被称为“果醋饮料”（shrubs）的制作方法也多种多样，从简单地将糖水或蜂蜜水与少量果醋混合，到将水果或薄荷浸泡在醋中数日制成糖浆，不一而足。然后滤掉固体部分，并加入大量的糖。有些人喜欢在最后一步煮沸这种“醋饮”。随着碳酸饮料（例如软饮料）的兴起，这些配方已不再流行。

饮食与代谢

初步研究表明，糖尿病患者食用 2-4 汤匙醋可能会略微降低餐后血糖和胰岛素水平。[45]

营养
蒸馏醋或红酒醋含水量高达 95%，不含脂肪或蛋白质。[46] 以 100 毫升（3.5 美制液盎司）蒸馏醋为参考量，可提供 75 千焦（18 千卡）的能量，且微量营养素含量极低。[46] 红酒醋和苹果醋的成分（以及营养成分的缺乏）相同，而香醋含水量为 77%，碳水化合物含量为 17%，每 100 毫升含 370 千焦（88 千卡）的能量。毫升，不含脂肪、蛋白质或微量营养素。[29]

非食用用途

民间医学
自古以来，民间医学就使用醋进行治疗，但临床研究尚无确凿证据支持醋对糖尿病、减肥、癌症或作为益生菌的益处。[3][47] 后来的一项系统评价和荟萃分析表明，醋可能有助于2型糖尿病患者降低餐后胰岛素和葡萄糖水平。[48]

将醋涂抹于常见水母的蜇伤处可以使刺细胞失活，但效果不如热水。[49] 这也适用于僧帽水母，尽管它通常被认为是水母，但实际上并非水母（它是一种管水母）。[50]

一些醋疗法存在健康风险。[51] 已有苹果醋导致食管损伤的报道，而且由于用于医疗用途的醋产品既不受监管也不受标准化，因此此类产品的成分可能差异很大。以及酸性。[52]

清洁
白醋常被用作家用清洁剂。[3] 大多数情况下，建议用水稀释后再使用，以确保安全并避免损坏被清洁的表面。由于白醋呈酸性，它可以溶解玻璃、咖啡机和其他光滑表面上的矿物质沉积物。[53] 白醋以其高效的清洁能力而闻名。

醋可用于清洁不锈钢和玻璃制品。在英国，将麦芽醋洒在揉成团的报纸上，是一种传统且至今仍然流行的清洁油污窗户和镜子的方法。[54]

醋可用于抛光铜、黄铜、青铜或银器。它是一种极佳的溶剂，可用于清洁环氧树脂以及贴纸式价格标签上的胶水。据报道，醋也是一种有效的管道疏通剂。[55]

在洗碗机和洗衣机中使用醋会损坏其橡胶密封圈和软管，导致漏水。根据《消费者报告》的测试，醋作为漂洗剂在洗碗机中使用时效果不佳，也无法去除硬水膜。美国清洁协会首席发言人布莱恩·桑索尼表示，醋“对已经渗入衣物的污渍，包括食物污渍和血渍，效果并不理想。”[56][57]

其他可能被醋损坏的家居用品和表面包括地板、石材台面、刀具、电子设备的屏幕、熨斗水箱以及各种小型家电的橡胶部件。常见的易受醋损坏的金属包括铝、铜以及小型家电中常用的低等级不锈钢。[56]

除草剂

醋可用作接触性除草剂，浓度越高效果越好。市面上常见的除草剂是20%的醋酸溶液。[58] 醋酸不具选择性，且不会发生内吸作用，因此必须将其施用于植物根部，才能杀死根系，避免误伤周围植物。醋不具备残留的植物抑制作用，必须在新植物发芽后重新施用[59]

反应、副产物和污染物

浓度超过 10% 的溶液需要小心处理，因为它们具有腐蚀性，会对皮肤造成损伤[60]

打开醋瓶后，可能会产生醋母。醋母被认为是无害的，可以通过过滤去除[61]

当小苏打和醋混合时，小苏打中的碳酸氢根离子与醋酸反应生成碳酸，碳酸分解成二氧化碳和水，从而完成碳循环。醋酸钠则溶解在醋中的水中[62]

法规

一些国家对醋的允许酸度百分比有规定。例如，加拿大政府将醋酸含量限制在 4.1% 至 12.3% 之间，除非该醋仅供生产使用并明确标明用途[63]在美国、澳大利亚和新西兰，醋的醋酸含量必须至少达到4%（体积比）。[3][64]

许多司法管辖区区分酿造醋和用稀释醋酸制成的制剂。后者不能以“醋”的名义出售，在英国被称为“非酿造调味品”[65]，在澳大利亚和新西兰被称为“仿醋”[64]。

Vinegar (from Old French vyn egre 'sour wine') is an odorous aqueous solution of diluted acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings or naturally occurring organic compounds. Vinegar typically contains from 4% to 18% acetic acid by volume.^[1]

Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation—converting simple sugars to ethanol using yeast, and then converting ethanol to acetic acid using acetic acid bacteria.^[2] Many types of vinegar are made, depending on source materials.

The product is now mainly used in the culinary arts as a flavorful, acidic cooking ingredient, salad dressing, or pickling agent. Various types are used as condiments or garnishes, including balsamic vinegar and malt vinegar.

As an easily manufactured mild acid, it has a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses, including functioning as a household cleaner.^[3]

The word "vinegar" arrived in Middle English from Old French (vyn egre; sour wine), which in turn derives from Latin: vīnum (wine) + ācre (neuter gender of ācer, sour).^[3][4] Vinegar was formerly also called eisel.

The word "acetic" derives from Latin acētum (vinegar, or more properly vinum acetum: "wine turned sour").^[5]

While vinegar making may be as old as brewing, the first documented evidence of vinegar making and use was by the ancient Babylonians around 3000 BCE.^[6] They primarily made vinegar from fermentation of fruits, dates, figs, and beer and used it for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Its uses were then spread to neighboring lands, evident as traces of it also have been found in Egyptian urns.

In East Asia, the Chinese began professionalizing vinegar production in the Zhou dynasty.^[7] The book Zhou Li mentions that many noble or royal households had a "vinegar maker" as a specialized occupation. Most vinegar-making then was concentrated in what is now Shanxi province near the city of Taiyuan, which remains a famous vinegar-making region today. Many Chinese kinds of vinegar and their uses for culinary and medicinal purposes were written down in the agricultural manual Qimin Yaoshu (齊民要術).^[7]

The Greeks and Romans frequently used vinegar made from wine. The Spartans had vinegar as a part of their traditional blood soup melas zomos; in addition to flavoring the broth, the acidity of the vinegar prevented the blood from coagulating (a purpose for which vinegar is still used in modern blood soups around the world). The Roman Columella described the ingredients and process for making several types of vinegar in his work Res Rustica.^[7]

In the late Middle Ages, vinegar making was slowly being professionalized in Europe, with the French city of Orléans becoming particularly famous for the quality of its vinegar through a formalized fermentation and aging process, which became known as the Orléans process.^[6][7] During this time, malt vinegar also began to develop in England, where it was first known as alegar.^[8] Balsamic vinegar also began its evolution in the Duchy of Modena in Italy, though it would not become widely known until the Napoleonic Wars after being sold abroad by French troops.^[9]

In the 19th century, vinegar production underwent many dramatic changes, such as rapid industrialization and scientific analysis. Karl Sebastian Schüzenbach invented the first large-scale industrial process for vinegar production in the Kingdom of Baden in 1823.^[7] Known as the packed generator, it circulated alcohol over beechwood shavings to reduce fermentation times from several months down to 1–2 weeks. This process also facilitated the rise of vinegar made from pure alcohol called spirit vinegar or distilled white vinegar. Japan also began industrializing vinegar production during the last days of the Tokugawa shogunate, when Matazaemon Nakano, a man from a traditional sake brewing family, discovered that sake lees could be used to make rice vinegar. This helped provide ample vinegar for the burgeoning popularity of sushi in Japan. The company he founded, now known as Mizkan, is headquartered in Handa (near Nagoya) and is the largest vinegar producer in the world.^[7]

Meanwhile, vinegar fermentation became understood as a natural and biological process. Louis Pasteur made the decisive discovery that a special type of bacteria, later known as acetic acid bacteria, was the agent of fermentation for vinegar production.^[10]

In the 20th century, vinegar production was again revolutionized by the invention of the submerged fermentation process that cut production times down to 1–2 days.^[11] This allowed the mass production of cheap vinegar around the world.

The conversion of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and oxygen (O2) to acetic acid (CH3COOH) takes place by the following reaction:^[12]

CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O

Vinegar contains numerous flavonoids, phenolic acids, and aldehydes,^[13] which vary in content depending on the source material used to make the vinegar, such as orange peel or various fruit juice concentrates.^[14][15]

Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation process. In general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars, where fermentation proceeds over the course of a few months to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and their cellulose biofilm, known as mother of vinegar.

Fast methods add the aforementioned mother of vinegar as a bacterial culture to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation.^[16] In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in 1–3 days.

The source materials for making vinegar are varied – different fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages, and other fermentable materials are used.^[3]

Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines, usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, blackcurrant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where a market exists for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to nonfruit vinegars that are infused with fruits or fruit flavors).^[17] Several varieties are produced in Asia. Persimmon vinegar, called gam sikcho, is common in South Korea. Jujube vinegar, called zaocu or hongzaocu, and wolfberry vinegar are produced in China.

Apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present. It can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened (usually with honey) for consumption.

A byproduct of commercial kiwifruit growing is a large amount of waste in the form of misshapen or otherwise-rejected fruit (which may constitute up to 30% of the crop) and kiwifruit pomace. One of the uses for pomace is the production of kiwifruit vinegar, produced commercially in New Zealand since at least the early 1990s, and in China in 2008.^[18][19]

Vinegar made from raisins is used in cuisines of the Middle East. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor. Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East, and used in Eastern Arabia.^[20][21]

Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut sap or coconut water, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (notably the Philippines, where it is known as sukang tuba), as well as in some cuisines of India and Sri Lanka, especially Goan cuisine. A cloudy, white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.^[22]

In the Philippines, other types of vinegar are made from palm sap. Like coconut vinegar, they are by-products of tubâ (palm wine) production. Two of the most widely produced are nipa palm vinegar (sukang nipa or sukang sasa) and kaong palm vinegar (sukang kaong or sukang irok). Along with coconut and cane vinegar, they are the four main traditional vinegar types in the Philippines and are an important part of Filipino cuisine.^[23] Nipa palm vinegar is made from the sap of the leaf stalks of nipa palm. Its flavor has notes of citrus and imparts a distinctly musky aroma.^[24][22] Kaong palm vinegar is made from the sap of flower stalks of the kaong palm. It is sweeter than all the other Philippine vinegar types and is commonly used in salad dressing.^[23] Vinegar from the buri palm sap is also produced, but not with the same prevalence as coconut, nipa, and kaong vinegars.^[25] Kaong palm vinegar is also produced in Indonesia and Malaysia, though it is not as prevalent as in the Philippines because the palm wine industry is not as widespread in these Muslim-majority countries.^[26][27]

Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged vinegar produced in the Modena and Reggio Emilia provinces of Italy. The original product — traditional balsamic vinegar — is made from the concentrated juice, or must, of white Trebbiano grapes. It is dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in successive casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and ash wood. Originally a costly product available to only the Italian upper classes, traditional balsamic vinegar is marked tradizionale or "DOC" to denote its protected designation of origin status, and is aged for 12 to 25 years. A cheaper non-DOC commercial form described as aceto balsamico di Modena (balsamic vinegar of Modena)^[28] became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century, typically made with concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, then colored and slightly sweetened with caramel and sugar.

Balsamic vinegar is made from a grape product. It contains no balsam, though was traditionally aged in balsam as one of the steps. A high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it mellow. In terms of its nutrition content, balsamic vinegar contains the carbohydrates of grape sugars (some 17% of total composition), making it some five times higher in caloric content than typical distilled or wine vinegar.^[29]

Vinegar made from sugarcane juice is traditional to and is most popular in the Philippines, in particular in the northern Ilocos Region (where it is called sukang Iloko or sukang basi). It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Because it contains no residual sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim (Tagalog for "sour vinegar").

Cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars; it becomes sour by the direct action of bacteria on the sugar. The other way is through fermentation to produce a traditional wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid. Contaminated basi also becomes vinegar.

Cane vinegar is also produced in other countries, like France and the United States.^[30] A white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice, and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost.^{[citation needed]}

Sugarcane sirka is made from sugarcane juice in parts of northern India. During summer, people put cane juice in earthenware pots with iron nails. The fermentation takes place due to the action of wild yeast. The cane juice is converted to vinegar having a blackish color (from ferrous oxide and acetate). The sirka is used to preserve pickles and for flavoring curries.

Malt vinegar made from ale, also called "alegar",^[31] is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. Then an ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged.^[31] It is typically light-brown in color. Malt vinegar (along with salt) is a traditional seasoning for fish and chips, and in the United Kingdom and Canada, a popular seasoning for French fries in general. Some fish and chip shops replace it with non-brewed condiment. Salt and vinegar are combined as a common, traditional flavoring for crisps;^[32][33][34] in some varieties this involves the conversion of the vinegar to sodium acetate or sodium diacetate, to avoid dampening the product in manufacture.^[35]

Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, sorghum, or a combination of these. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavour. The recipe is not fixed, so some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Zhenjiang vinegar, originates in the city of Zhenjiang in Jiangsu Province, eastern China.^[36] Shanxi mature vinegar is another popular type of Chinese vinegar that is made exclusively from sorghum and other grains. Nowadays in Shanxi province, some traditional vinegar workshops still produce handmade vinegar with a high acidity that is aged for at least five years. Only the vinegars made in Taiyuan and some counties in Jinzhong and aged for at least three years are considered authentic Shanxi mature vinegar according to the latest national standard. A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu.

Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in "white" (light yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer a light rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally is colored with red yeast rice. Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, and it is also widely used in other East Asian countries. White rice vinegar has a mild acidity with a somewhat "flat" and uncomplex flavor. Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.

The term "spirit vinegar" is sometimes reserved for the stronger variety (5% to 24%^[37] acetic acid) made from sugar cane or chemically produced acetic acid.^[38] To be called "spirit vinegar", the product must come from an agricultural source and must be made by "double fermentation". The first fermentation is sugar to alcohol, and the second is alcohol to acetic acid. Products made from synthetically produced acetic acid cannot be called "vinegar" in the UK, where the term allowed is "non-brewed condiment".

Sherry vinegar is linked to the production of sherry wines of Jerez. Dark mahogany in color, it is made exclusively from the acetic fermentation of wines. It is concentrated and has generous aromas, including a note of wood, ideal for vinaigrettes and flavoring various foods.^[39] Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar in Southern and Central Europe, Cyprus, and Israel. As with wine, the range in quality is considerable. Better-quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years, and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than white or cider vinegar. More expensive wine vinegars are made from individual varieties of wine, such as champagne, sherry, or pinot gris.

The term "distilled vinegar" as used in the United States (called "spirit vinegar" in the UK, "white vinegar" in Canada^[40]) is something of a misnomer because it is not produced by distillation, but by fermentation of distilled alcohol. The fermentate is diluted to produce a colorless solution of 5 to 8% acetic acid in water, with a pH of about 2.6. This is variously known as distilled spirit, "virgin" vinegar,^[41] or white vinegar, and is used in cooking, baking, meat preservation, and pickling, as well as for medicinal, laboratory, and cleaning purposes.^[38] The most common starting material in some regions, because of its low cost, is barley malt,^[42] or in the United States, corn. It is sometimes derived from petroleum.^[43] Distilled vinegar is used predominantly for cooking, although in the UK it is used as an alternative to brown or light malt vinegar. White distilled vinegar can also be used for cleaning, and some types are sold specifically for this purpose.

Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation,^[3] in particular as pickling liquids, vinaigrettes, and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in sauces, such as hot sauce, mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used in chutneys. It is often used as a condiment on its own, or as a part of other condiments. Marinades often contain vinegar. Soups sometimes have vinegar added to them, as is the case with hot and sour soup. In terms of its shelf life, vinegar's acidic nature allows it to last indefinitely without the use of refrigeration; it is essentially already "spoiled".^[44]

Several beverages are made using vinegar, for instance posca in ancient Rome. The ancient Greek drink oxymel is made from vinegar and honey, and sekanjabin is a traditional Persian drink similar to oxymel. Other preparations, known colloquially as "shrubs", range from simply mixing sugar water or honey water with small amounts of fruity vinegar, to making syrup by laying fruit or mint in vinegar for several days, then sieving off solid parts and adding considerable amounts of sugar. Some prefer to boil the "shrub" as a final step. These recipes have lost much of their popularity with the rise of carbonated beverages, such as soft drinks.

Preliminary research indicates that consuming 2–4 tablespoons of vinegar may cause small reductions in postprandial levels of blood glucose and insulin in people with diabetes.^[45]

Distilled or red wine vinegar is 95% water, with no fat or protein.^[46] In a 100 mL (3+1⁄2 US fl oz) reference amount, distilled vinegar supplies 75 kJ (18 kcal) of food energy and no micronutrients in significant content.^[46] The composition (and absence of nutrient content) for red wine vinegar and apple cider vinegar are the same, whereas balsamic vinegar is 77% water with 17% carbohydrates, 370 kJ (88 kcal) per 100 mL, and contains no fat, protein, or micronutrients.^[29]

Since antiquity, folk medicine treatments have used vinegar, but no conclusive evidence from clinical research supports health claims of benefits for diabetes, weight loss, cancer, or use as a probiotic.^[3][47] A systematic review and meta-analysis later suggested it could help type 2 diabetics reduce insulin and glucose after meals.^[48]

Applying vinegar to common jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts, although not as effectively as hot water.^[49] This also applies to the Portuguese man o' war, which, although generally considered to be a jellyfish, is not (it is a siphonophore).^[50]

Some treatments with vinegar pose risks to health.^[51] Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar has been reported, and because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, such products may vary widely in content and acidity.^[52]

White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent.^[3] For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers, and other smooth surfaces.^[53] Vinegar is known as an effective cleaner of stainless steel and glass. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the United Kingdom.^[54]

Vinegar can be used for polishing copper, brass, bronze or silver. It is an excellent solvent for cleaning epoxy resin as well as the gum on sticker-type price tags. It has been reported as an effective drain cleaner.^[55]

The use of vinegar in dishwashers and washing machines can cause damage to their rubber seals and hoses, leading to leaks. According to testing done by Consumer Reports, vinegar is ineffective as a rinse aid and in removing hard-water film while used in a dishwasher. According to Brian Sansoni, chief spokesperson for the American Cleaning Institute, vinegar "isn't very useful with stains that have already set into clothing, including food stains and bloodstains."^[56][57]

Other household items and surfaces that can be damaged by vinegar include flooring, stone countertops, knives, the screens of electronic devices, clothes iron water tanks, and rubber components of various small appliances. Common metals that can be damaged by vinegar include aluminum, copper, and lower-quality grades of stainless steel often used in small appliances.^[56]

Vinegar can be used as a contact herbicide and is more effective at higher concentrations. Twenty percent acetic acid is commonly sold for this purpose.^[58] Acetic acid is non-selective and does not translocate so it must be applied to the base of the plant in order to kill the root system and avoid killing surrounding plants unintentionally. Vinegar does not provide residual plant suppression and must be reapplied as new plants germinate^[59]

Solutions above 10% require careful handling, as they are corrosive and damaging to the skin.^[60]

When a bottle of vinegar is opened, mother of vinegar may develop. It is considered harmless and can be removed by filtering.^[61]

When baking soda and vinegar are combined, the bicarbonate ion of the baking soda reacts with acetic acid to form carbonic acid, which decomposes into carbon dioxide and water, completing the carbon cycle. Sodium acetate remains in solution with the water contained in the vinegar.^[62]

Some countries have regulations on the permitted acidity percentage of vinegar. For example, the government of Canada limits acetic to between 4.1% and 12.3%, unless the vinegar is sold only for manufacturing use and identified as such.^[63] In the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, vinegar must contain a minimum of 4% acetic acid by volume.^[3][64]

Many jurisdictions distinguish between brewed vinegar and preparations made with diluted acetic acid. The latter may not be sold as "vinegar" and is instead referred to as "non-brewed condiment" in the UK,^[65] or "imitation vinegar" in Australia and New Zealand.^[64]

• Food additive
• List of condiments
• Sensory overload
• Vinegar tasters
• Vinegaroon
• Wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid)